The Methodology Of Biopsychology: Substance Abuse

The Methodology Of Biopsychology: Substance Abuse To understand addictive behavior, one must understand the brain; the pursuit of this understanding is a challenge with great rewards. Analyzing human behavior requires subjectivity, while the brain contains objective realities; this requires holistic approach for full comprehension. Three general types of methodological issues are prominent in research involving assessment of addiction: (1) the reliability and validity of self-report, collateral, and biological methods of assessing substance use, (2) the variability and episodic course of substance use disorders, and (3) the heterogeneity of individuals with substance use disorders. The history, explanation, pathways and methodologies of addiction are all complex and need to be studied in the scope of biopsychology in order to advance the understanding and treatment of all addictions. History Chemical dependency has been part of every society and each millennium has treated the problems that addiction brings with a methodology unique to the times. Historically, society has attempted to deal with addiction in a certain way (Scheier, 2009). Based in fear of all the unknowns associated with substance abuse, the legal system sent addicts to prison, society in general shunned them and treated them as misfits, and the mental health community confined them to mental health institutions. Today the current modality of treatment for those afflicted with substance abuse is to attempt some way to get them help in whatever area they need it. Basic research on substance abuse has been a public science since the 1930s, funded almost entirely by the U.S. federal government (Scheier). The popular experimentation with drugs in the mid-to-late 1960s raised many questions for which the traditional focus of Addiction Research Center had no answers (Smith, 2010). As a consequence, the field began to diversify and decentralize such that researchers had more pathways from which to choose. Research pathways emerged in behavioral and neuro- or psychopharmacology (Scheier, 2009). Meanwhile, substance abuse also took to the street, bringing researchers into the community. This brought about the emergence of four significant research areas: qualitative social research, epidemiology, treatment research, and research based on self-reports (Scheier). Definition of Addiction There are several definitions of addiction. All addictions have common denominators of being a complex illness characterized by intense, uncontrollable craving, along with compulsive behavior even in light of devastating consequences. (Pinel, 2009). These commonalities also include: symptoms of withdrawal, tolerance, a desire to cut down or stop use/behavior, the inability to stop or decrease usage, loss of employment, estranged families, and social contacts are lost due to the addiction. Addiction has many dimensions that disrupt several if not every aspect of an individuals life. In order to understand what addiction is a definition needs to be cleanly stated. Current neuroscientific research on substance abuse seeks to identify the cellular and molecular mechanisms that mediate the transition from occasional, controlled drug use to the loss of behavioral control over drug seeking and drug-taking that defines chronic addiction (Edwards, 2005). Treatment Modalities Every individual is unique and each person can respond differently to treatment modalities. Professionals that work in the field of addiction and treatment should be trained in current trends in alternative treatments and especially those that have proven effective. In the study by Castel, Rush, Urbanoski and Toneatto, (2006) their results show how complex addictions are and the overlap with mental health issues or other biological disorders. This study was strong in their methodology, but the use of a screening tool might have increased the rate of reported symptoms. Their study did not indicate this to be of significance. Their study has opened the pathway for future research in biopsychology that will illuminate some pivotal points in the biological nature of cross addictions with psychiatric issues and substance abuse indicators. Medication and behavioral therapy, especially when combined, are important elements of an overall therapeutic process that often begins with detoxification, followed by treatment and relapse prevention. Easing withdrawal symptoms can be important in the initiation of treatment; preventing relapse is necessary for maintaining its effects (Fitzgerald McCarty, 2009). Sometimes, as with other chronic conditions, episodes of relapse may require a return to prior treatment components. A continuum of care that includes a holistic treatment program that addresses all aspects of an individuals life, including medical and mental health services and follow-up options can be crucial to a persons success in achieving and maintaining a drug-free lifestyle (Scheier, 2009). Methodologies for Study Research in this field has produced a host of differing theories and models to describe the factors influencing drug use. The enormous amount of literature is impressive, yet overwhelming and often contradictory (Edwards Cobb, 2010). The focus of this bibliography has been to assess the current state of substance abuse with respect to the focus of current research attention, and to identify knowledge gaps. Despite the limitations of the existing material, this view provides a useful platform to deepen and broaden the scope of biopsychological research. This section will describe the studies in general and then will provide synopsis of the common theories that are present throughout each study as well as how each study stands alone. Each individual study will be described and the conclusions presented, this will be brief and to the point. There will be a more detailed discussion that will take into consideration all of the studies presented. The discussion will include the strengths and limitations of current methodologies, biology, similarities and differences with regard to the general theory of addiction and how the addiction pathways are formed as well as possible treatments. Finally, this section will address what needs to be considered in the future and what the studies brought up that needs to be examined in order to better understand and offer some solutions for future studies as well as to offer the reader options for future study and research. The history, explanation, pathways and methodologies of addiction are all complex and need to be studied in the scope of biopsychology in order to advance the understanding and treatment of all addictions. Addiction has been a part of every society, socio-economic class, race, and gender and discriminates against none. There are a variety of theories of addiction as well as treatments; some founded in theory and others founded self-reports. The ability to treat and understand addiction rests in the hands of competent clinicians willing to examine possibilities that are not commonly thought of to be related to addiction. Understanding the biopsychology of addiction will aid in eliminating addiction for future generations to come. Annotated Bibliography Castel, S., Rush, B., Urbanoski, K., Toneatto, T. (2006). Overlap of clusters of psychiatric symptoms among clients of a comprehensive addiction treatment service. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20(1), 28-35. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.20.1.28. This article describes the prevalence and overlap of psychiatric symptoms among 2,784 clients of the outpatient programs at a comprehensive addictions treatment facility. The psychiatric symptoms were assessed by a computer-based questionnaire, and the analysis focused on the overlap of symptom clusters (multimorbidity) and their relation to selected intake variables known to be predictors of treatment outcome. This study will help emphasize the need for a detailed customized treatment approach. Fitzgerald, J., McCarty, D. (2009). Understanding attitudes toward use of medication in substance abuse treatment: A multilevel approach. Psychological Services, 6(1), 74-84. doi:10.1037/a0013420 This study used a treatment unit survey for individual and organizational variables that influence attitudes toward use of naltrexone, methadone, and buprenorphine for the treatment of alcohol and drug disorders. Previous research has not considered both sets of influences simultaneously. Hierarchical linear modeling tested the contribution of individual and organizational variables with data from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network treatment unit and workforce surveys (n = 2,269 staff nested within 247 treatment units). Individual-level variables consistently had more influence on attitudes, but a unique blend of variables existed for each medication. One predictor, support for psychiatric medications, influenced attitudes across all medications. Staff attitudes toward addiction medications varied significantly between treatment units. This study can be a strong research variable to establish the need for psychobiology to be an active participant for addiction treatment. The appropriate use of addiction medications was evidenced by their results. Ducci, F., Goldman, D. (2008). Genetic approaches to addiction: Genes and alcohol. Addiction, 103(9), 1414-1428. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02203.x. This study examines the genetic basis for addiction, alcoholism in particular. The study is a literature review that focused on the genetic basis of alcoholism. The results of the review show that alcoholic genes are acting at the pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic levels. There has been major progress in gene identification in recent years, using intermediate phenotypes such as task-related brain activation, whole genome association studies, gene environment studies, gene effects studies and the genome wide analysis. This study finds that the genetic basis for alcoholism and other addictions is unknown, as further studies are conducted; they are likely to find a link. This study will be used to demonstrate that addiction can be tied to genes and that biopsychology will play an important part in the future of addiction. Edwards, G. (2005). Addiction Biology goes fast forward. Addiction, 100(1), doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01109.x. This article examines the new leadership established at the Society for the Study of Addiction. Included are a variety of new appointments, as well as newly created ones. This article will be used to demonstrate the preparing of the addiction community to prepare for studied in biopsychology and their acceptance and increased understanding of the matter. This article will further show that addiction study is needed and that infrastructure is being created in order to provide for this new understanding of addiction. Edwards, S. Koob G. (2010). Neurobiology of deregulated motivational systems in drug addiction Future Neurology, 5(3), 393-410. doi: 2034674321. This study examines Neurobiological mechanisms for negative reinforcement, which mean that participating in an addiction, in this study drug addiction, and it alleviates a negative emotional state, and this involves changes in the brain and leads to forebrain stress. This stress may contribute to changes in the reinforcement mechanisms in the brain that are associated with addiction. The points of the intersection between the positive and negative motivational areas in the brain may drive addiction and may provide an increased understanding of the neurobiological substrate for therapeutic intervention. This article will be used to further examine that addiction is related to biopsychology and that determining the reinforcement centers in the brain will aid in understanding the behavior associated with addiction. Fitzgerald, J., McCarty, D. (2009). Understanding attitudes toward use of medication in substance abuse treatment: A multilevel approach. Psychological Services, 6(1), 74-84. doi:10.1037/a0013420. This study used a treatment unit survey for individual and organizational variables that influence attitudes toward use of naltrexone, methadone, and buprenorphine for the treatment of alcohol and drug disorders. Previous research has not considered both sets of influences simultaneously. Hierarchical linear modeling tested the contribution of individual and organizational variables with data from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network treatment unit and workforce surveys (n = 2,269 staff nested within 247 treatment units). Individual-level variables consistently had more influence on attitudes, but a unique blend of variables existed for each medication. One predictor, support for psychiatric medications, influenced attitudes across all medications. Staff attitudes toward addiction medications varied significantly between treatment units. This study can be a strong research variable to establish the need for psychobiology to be an active participant for addiction treatment. The appropriate use of addiction medications was evidenced by their results. Fortuna, J. (2010). Sweet preference, sugar addiction and the familial history of alcohol dependence: Shared neural pathways and genes. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 147-51. This study examines the fact that many people who are addicted to drugs and alcohol also have a sweet preference, particularly those with a high sucrose concentration. This study further examines that some people who have a high consumption of sugar rich foods and drinks demonstrates the release of euphoric endorphins and dopamine in the same way that alcohol and drugs do. This study asserts that the neurobiological pathways are the same for sugar and drug addiction. Craving, tolerance, withdrawal and sensitization have been documented in both human and animal studies. This study goes on to show that there is a cross sensitization between sugar addiction and narcotic dependence. This study also demonstrates that the biological children of alcoholic parents, particularly fathers, have a strong sweet preference and that may show up in eating disorders in later life. This study will be used to demonstrate that addiction can be determined through genes and can manifest in different addiction choices. Gillman, A., Kosobud, A., Timberlake, W. (2010). Effects of multiple daily nicotine administrations on pre- and post-nicotine circadian activity episodes in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 124(4), 520-531. doi:10.1037/a0020272. This study has shown that nicotine that is administered with an entertaining activity and that it affected food intake and that throughout the pre and post dose that there was a relation to the increase in the desire for the activity and as well as the nicotine. This study will be used to demonstrate that cross addiction and transference can happen in addiction resulting in the way the brain synthesizes entertainment and addiction. It will be used to demonstrate that there are addiction areas in the brain and that stimulation of one can increase other areas. Haber, J. R., Bucholz, K. K., Jacob, T., Grant, J. D., Scherrer, J. F., Sartor, C. E., Duncan, A. R. Heath, A. (2010, September). Effect of paternal alcohol and drug dependence on offspring conducts disorder: Gene-Environment interplay. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 71 (5); 652-663. ISSN: 1937-1888 This article discussed current research on substance-use disorders and externalizing disorders that frequently present simultaneously, as well as in families across generations. Researchers examined the role of genetic and environmental influences in the relationship between paternal histories of drug dependence or alcohol dependence and offspring conduct disorder using an offspring-of-twins design. The methodology used male twins from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry, their offspring, and mothers of the offspring. The study was difficult to follow, but yielded results that indicated genetic risk associated with both paternal drug-dependence and paternal alcohol-dependence histories predicted offspring conduct-disorder risk, but only risk associated with paternal drug-dependence history was mitigated by having a low-risk environment. This study will be used to demonstrate a significant gene-environment interaction, indicating a strong need for further biopsychological research in this area. Lee, P., Lee, D., Lee, P.. (2010). 2010: U.S. Drug and Alcohol Policy, Looking Back and Moving Forward. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 99-114. This article demonstrates the different perspectives in the usage of the disease model of addiction indicating the influence of The United States drug policy. This article spans various areas of substance abuse research with the focus on new perspectives for future research and changes to the drug policy of the United States. This article will be used to show where the future of biopsychology and substance abuse research is headed. Pinel, J. P. J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-205-54892-7. This book covers a variety of biopsychology topics in depth as well as anatomy of the brain. This book will be used as a reference to explain the tests used for the determination of behavior and brain connectivity. It will be used to describe the parts of the brain that are related to addiction. It will also be used to explain how addiction works in the brain. Scheier, L. M. (ed) (2009). Multiple paths to partial truths: A history of drug etiology. The Handbook of Drug Etiology: Theory, Methods, and Empirical Findings. American Psychological Association. Washington, DC. ISBN: 978-1-4338-0446-5 This handbook covers the complexities of personality, genetic, environmental, and cultural influences on behavior that are difficult to dissect or treat as independent forces. This volume covers this dynamic field comprehensively. A team of researchers presents dissimilar theoretical perspectives and viewpoints on complex issues ranging from causation to consequences and including a rich discussion of prevention practices and how they influence policy. The editor and contributors show the origins of the field of drug use etiology in clinical work with addicts, detail the history of the field and examine the interaction of epidemiology and etiology. This book will be used to examine substance abuse causations such as peer pressure, community, genetics, race, and age. This will help determine the ways in which drug use etiology links with biopsychology. Smith, D. (2010).The evolution of addiction medicine and its San Francisco roots. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 199-201. This article examines how addiction has evolved from its roots in San Francisco. It examines a variety of problems that are caused from drug addiction and the problems that it causes to society. This article will be used as a historical reference and as a general reference to the history of drugs in general. Addiction research has attempted to keep up with the rapid progression. Sofuoglu, M., Sugarman, D., Carroll, K. (2010). Cognitive function as an emerging treatment target for marijuana addiction. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(2), 109-119. doi:10.1037/a0019295. Cannabis is the most widely used illicit substance in the world, and demand for effective treatment is increasing. However, abstinence rates following behavioral therapies have been modest, and there are no effective pharmacotherapies for the treatment of cannabis addiction. We propose a novel research agenda and a potential treatment strategy, based on observations that both acute and chronic exposure to cannabis are associated with dose-related cognitive impairments, most consistently in attention, working memory, verbal learning, and memory functions. These impairments are not completely reversible upon cessation of marijuana use, and moreover may interfere with the treatment of marijuana addiction. Therefore, targeting cognitive impairment associated with chronic marijuana use may be a promising novel strategy for the treatment of marijuana addiction. Preclinical studies suggest that medications enhancing the cholinergic transmission may attenuate cannabis-induced cognitive impai rments, but these cognitive enhancing medications have not been examined in controlled human studies. Preliminary evidence from individuals addicted to other drugs suggests that computerized cognitive rehabilitation may also have utility to improve cognitive function in marijuana users. Future clinical studies optimally designed to measure cognitive function as well as drug use behavior would be needed to test the efficacy of these treatments for marijuana addiction.

Inhibitory Potential Changes of Fluoxetine (Prozac) :: Biology Medicine Research Papers

Inhibitory Potential Changes of Fluoxetine (Prozac) Over the past several decades many scientists have explored the various possible links between the function of neurotransmitters in the brain and mood disorders. The neurotransmitter serotonin, found widely in plants, animals and humans has been a particular focus. Scientists who specialize in examining the function and effect of serotonin on the mind and body argue that imbalances in the levels and function of serotonin can be linked to disturbances in mood, anxiety, satiety, cognition, aggression and sexual drives (Tollefson and Rosenbalum, 2001). More specifically, these scientists suggest that this "decreased serotonergic neurotransmission plays an important role in the etiology of depression" (Xia, Gopal, and Gross, p. 157, 2002). Indeed studies that have examined serotonin via its major metabolite, 5-hydroxyndoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) consistently indicate that 5-HIAA levels are low in the cerebrospinal fluid of depressed patients (Davison, Neale and Kring, 2004). Because serotonin does not cross the blood-brain barrier, it must be synthesized locally. That is, it must be synthesized from within neurons in the brain. Once it is synthesized is then "released into the synapse from the cytoplasmic and vesicular reservoirs. Following release, serotonin is principally inactivated by reuptake into nerve terminals through a sodium/potassium (Na+/K+) adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) dependent carrier." (Tollefson and Rosenbalum, p. 27, 2001). Problems arise when too much serotonin is recaptured in the reuptake process during synapse or when to little serotonin is being locally manufactured in the central nervous system. As a result, too few serotonin neurotransmitters are able to make it across the synaptic cleft to stimulate postsynaptic receptors. Moreover, "in the absence of pharmacological manipulation, the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic nerve terminal typically leads to its inactivation" (Tollefson and Rosenbalum, p. 32, 2001). Low levels of serotonin have been most commonly linked to depression. For this reason, there have been many attempts by neuroscientists to develop antidepressant drugs that can interfere with the enzymes that eliminate serotonin neurotransmitters from the synapse. Indeed, though reuptake inhibition scientists hoped to be able to increase levels of serotonin in the CNS and thus ameliorate the negative affects of depression. One of the most recent breakthroughs in this pursuit was the development of the antagonist drug, fluoxetine. Fluoxetine (or Prozac) is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, and functions by acting as a barrier in the serotonin synaptic

Electronic Health Record Essay

The electronic health record also known as the EHR, has transformed the world of health care and documentation as we know it. An electronic health record is a â€Å" computer-based data warehouse or repository of information regarding the health status of a client, which is replacing the former paper-based medical record; it is the systematic documentation of a client’s health status and health care in a secured digital format , meaning that is can be processed, stored, transmitted, and accessed by authorized interdisciplinary professionals for the purpose of supporting efficient, high-quality health care across the client’s healthcare continuum† (McGonigle & Mastrian, 2015). Electronic health records has been an idea since the 1980’s but there was not a big push for use until President Bush made his union address in January 2004. He pushed for most Americans to have access to their electronic health records by 2014 (McGonigle & Mastrian, 2015). There are many benefits to the EHR that helps the patients, nurses, and other medical staff. There are also some concerns that have arisen as well. Overall the EHR, has been a positive change for the healthcare system as a whole. There are several advantages of the EHR not only for the healthcare worker but also for the patient. With EHR there is an increased quality of care due to the amount of information at hand from every available medical source. With this patients have more faster and efficient medical diagnosis and treatments (Spring, 2008). There is also more convenient data history that includes labs, medications, vaccination records, and medical tests that can be shared between physicians the patient is seeing (Electronic Health Record, 2014). This gives an overall better picture of the patient’s health as a whole. As with any advantages there is always some disadvantages.

Challenges Faced by Veterans after finishing their Term in the Military - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 561 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? Military service is marred with massive challenges as the officers have to control or shun their emotions and only concentrate on the survival tactics in war. This takes its toll on the officers who have to develop the best methods towards developing better methods to balance these emotions once they come back after finishing their term. The traumatic experiences and massive problems faced on the war severely impact the service men and women on the battle field. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Challenges Faced by Veterans after finishing their Term in the Military" essay for you Create order Emotional and physical trauma leads to problems such as PTSD and complete disconnection with family and friends once one goes back home to their family. It is therefore, critical to assess the challenges faced by the veterans as they try to assimilate in the home environment after serving their term in the military. Thesis statement: Veteran soldiers face massive challenges in their re-entry to the society and it is important to develop the best support structures to ensure that this process is seamless in the society Emotional and physical trauma is one of the main challenges that faces the veterans once they have finished their service and come back home to their families. Emotional trauma is mainly caused by a heartbreaking event that the individual witnessed in the war and it took away the emotional precepts and connection with people. The deaths and horrors that the soldiers face during war are detrimental to their emotional stability and for some they experience a massive level of emotional trauma that causes a disconnection with the people in the society. Emotional trauma has been identified to be a major challenge reducing re-entry into the society by 26%. In addition, physical trauma that may have been caused by torture or other forms of traumatic events is also a major challenge for the veterans (Ahem et al, 2015). The soldiers face problems since for some they may have lost their limbs that changes their normal life. It becomes difficult for these individuals to be integrated within the system and develop proper models that are identified towards developing change in the systems back at home. Marriage family and dependants also pose a major challenge to the veterans since they do not develop the best connections that are aimed at developing proper models and intricate processes with their families (Ahem et al, 2015). The soldiers face their families after years or a long period which poses a major challenge since the soldiers do not understand the main methods that they can use to reignite past connection with their families. The lack of emotional connection is especially a critical aspect with the emotional attributes of the individual having been completely lost under the specific systems that are developed. Lack of proper support and understanding among family and friends also offers a major challenge. Family and friends do not understand the individual pressure that the veterans face and the horrors and events that they have had to go through in their past (Ahem et al, 2015). This is especially harder for veterans who suffer from PTSD or have flashbacks. It makes it impossible to develop proper connections and integrate the specific tools and processes towards matching the individual models needed accordingly. In conclusion, veteran soldiers are faced with massive challenges while trying to be integrated in their homes and with a lack of proper support structures, they land into another battle field that is closer to home.